TLDR - Qin Shi Huang

Qin Shihuang Statue at Lintong, Xian, China
Gary Todd, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Born around 259 BCE in the Qin state, Ying Zheng, later known as Qin Shi Huang, rose to become one of China’s most transformative rulers. As the son of King Zhuangxiang and his concubine Zhao Ji, he was a descendant of the Qin royal lineage. Witnessing the chaos of the Warring States period, he grew up in a politically fractured world, where competing states vied for supremacy. At just 13, he ascended the throne following his father's death in 246 BCE, relying on his mother and influential advisor Lü Buwei to steer his early rule.

Facing constant power struggles, the young king depended on capable advisors, including Li Si, a skilled politician who helped him strengthen his rule. By 22, Ying Zheng had seized full control over Qin, driven by an ambition to unify China and end the ongoing warfare. He launched a series of military campaigns that led to the conquest of the six rival states: Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan, and Qi, culminating in 221 BCE with the creation of a united Chinese empire.

Summary of how each of the six rival states was conquered by Ying Zheng (Qin Shi Huang) in his unification of China

1. Han (230 BCE): As the weakest of the Warring States, Han was Qin’s first target. Han’s resources and military power were limited, and they quickly surrendered after Qin’s concentrated attacks. This served as a stepping stone for Qin's eastern expansion.
2. Zhao (228 BCE): Zhao had a strong military and had previously defeated Qin at Changping, but internal strife weakened it. Qin took advantage of a Zhao rebellion and swiftly moved to conquer its capital, Handan. Zhao’s fall marked the defeat of a significant rival.
3. Wei (225 BCE): Qin's forces used a strategic flood tactic by diverting the Yellow River to inundate Daliang, Wei's capital. This weakened the city's defenses, forcing Wei to surrender. Wei’s defeat was a testament to Qin’s use of innovative military strategies.
4. Chu (223 BCE): Chu was one of the largest and most resilient states, known for its strong army. Qin’s General Wang Jian led a massive campaign and gradually wore down Chu’s forces, ultimately conquering the capital. Chu’s defeat removed a major obstacle to Qin's dominance.
5. Yan (222 BCE): Yan, aware of Qin’s strength, initially attempted to assassinate Ying Zheng. The attempt failed, leading Qin to launch a punitive campaign. Qin forces invaded, capturing the Yan capital and subjugating the state, completing another critical conquest.
6. Qi (221 BCE): Qi, the last state, chose neutrality in hopes of avoiding conflict with Qin. However, once other states had fallen, Qi was left isolated. Qin’s forces advanced with little resistance, quickly bringing Qi under Qin’s control, marking the unification of China.

FYI Point 6: The assassination attempt on Ying Zheng was orchestrated by Crown Prince Dan of Yan, who sent an assassin named Jing Ke to kill the Qin king. Jing Ke approached Ying Zheng under the guise of a diplomatic envoy, bringing with him a "gift" meant to flatter the Qin ruler: a map of the Yan territory and the head of a traitorous Qin general. As he unfurled the map, Jing Ke revealed a hidden dagger and lunged at Ying Zheng. However, the attempt failed; Ying Zheng managed to avoid the attack and fend off Jing Ke long enough for his guards to intervene. Jing Ke was ultimately killed, and the failed attempt prompted Qin to launch an aggressive campaign against Yan, leading to its eventual conquest.

The banliang coin featured a hole for easy stringing, allowing merchants to carry large quantities conveniently. Its design influenced later Chinese coins, embodying a blend of practicality and symbolism in trade.

Proclaiming himself "Shi Huangdi" or First Emperor, he established a centralized government that redefined Chinese governance. He standardized weights ("jin" as 600 grams, but 500 grams in modern China), measures, and currency (banliang coin, one meal could cost between 1-3 banliang coins), constructed roads to facilitate trade, and replaced the feudal system with a bureaucracy of appointed officials, weakening the traditional aristocracy.

Despite his achievements, Qin Shi Huang’s rule is also remembered for its harshness. Determined to eliminate dissent, he imposed severe laws and famously ordered the burning of books and burial of scholars to control intellectual thought. Such measures left a lasting scar on China’s cultural history.

How does scholars and their ideas pose a threat to Qin Shi Huang?
The dissent Qin Shi Huang sought to suppress primarily stemmed from Confucianism and other philosophical schools that advocated for values such as:

1. Individualism: Confucianism emphasized the importance of individual moral integrity and familial loyalty, which could challenge the authoritarian rule of Qin Shi Huang.
2. Critique of Autocracy: Confucian scholars often criticized excessive centralization of power and advocated for a more balanced governance model, posing a threat to Qin’s absolute authority.
3. Regional Loyalties: Philosophies promoting loyalty to local rulers or regional traditions could undermine Qin’s efforts to unify China under a centralized government.

His reign was also marked by monumental construction projects reflecting his grand ambitions, such as commissioning the Great Wall to secure the northern borders and constructing an elaborate mausoleum with the famous Terracotta Army to protect him in the afterlife.

Each figure in the Terracotta Army is unique, with distinct facial features, hairstyles, and clothing, reflecting the diversity of Qin's army and the advanced craftsmanship of ancient Chinese artisans.

Qin Shi Huang died in 210 BCE, reportedly from mercury poisoning while seeking immortality. His death unleashed a power struggle that eventually led to the collapse of the Qin dynasty in 206 BCE. Today, he is remembered both as a visionary unifier who laid the foundations of a centralized Chinese empire and as a ruler whose authoritarian policies sparked enduring controversy. His impact remains deeply etched in the history of China.